The critical apparatus of the volume, online. The book prints its Notes & references chapter by chapter; this page gathers them, adds clickable links, and is corrected without reprinting. It follows the master: any reference added, removed or corrected in the book is so here in the same pass.
282 references · 271 unique · 9 repeats
The body's terrain — metabolism, variability, interactions
D. J. McKenna, G. H. N. Towers, F. Abbott, "Monoamine oxidase inhibitors in South American hallucinogenic plants: tryptamine and β-carboline constituents of ayahuasca," Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 1984.
J. C. Callaway et al., "Pharmacokinetics of Hoasca alkaloids in healthy humans," Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 1999.
R. S. Obach, J. Pablo, D. C. Mash, "Cytochrome P450 2D6 catalyzes the O-demethylation of ibogaine to noribogaine," Drug Metabolism and Disposition, 1998.
X. Koenig, K. Hilber, "The anti-addiction drug ibogaine and the heart: a delicate relation," Molecules, 2015 (QT prolongation, hERG).
K. E. Caudle et al., "Standardizing CYP2D6 genotype-to-phenotype translation (Activity Score)," CPIC consortium, 2020; DPWG (KNMP) guidelines for phenotype translation.
T. Zhao, Y.-Q. He, J. Wang et al., "Inhibition of human cytochrome P450 enzymes 3A4 and 2D6 by β-carboline alkaloids, harmine derivatives," Phytotherapy Research, 2011, 25(11):1671-1677 (competitive inhibition of CYP2D6 by harmaline and harmine).
R. R. Shah, R. L. Smith, "Phenoconversion: a neglected factor in the genotype–phenotype relationship," British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 2015.
N. E. Zinberg, Drug, Set, and Setting, Yale University Press, 1984 (substance / state / container triad).
The container: what separates a medicine from a trauma
Leary T., Metzner R., Alpert R., The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead, University Books, 1964.
Hartogsohn I., “Set and setting, psychedelics and the placebo response: An extra-pharmacological perspective on psychopharmacology,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2016, 30(12):1259-1267.
Hartogsohn I., “Constructing drug effects: A history of set and setting,” Drug Science, Policy and Law, 2017, 3:1-17.
Chacruna Institute for Psychedelic Plant Medicines, Guidelines for the Awareness of Sexual Abuse and Ethical Conduct in Ayahuasca Ceremonies, San Francisco, 2018 (updated 2020, 2023).
On the right use of guides: power, transference, and abuses
Chacruna Institute for Psychedelic Plant Medicines, Ayahuasca Community Guide for the Awareness of Sexual Abuse, San Francisco, 2018 (updated 2020, 2023).
Labate B.C., Cavnar C. (eds.), Ayahuasca Shamanism in the Amazon and Beyond, Oxford University Press, 2014.
Tafur J., The Fellowship of the River: A Medical Doctor's Exploration into Traditional Amazonian Plant Medicine, Espiritu Books, 2017.
Miviludes, annual reports, files on neo-shamanism and cultic abuses, French Republic.
Aronovich A., academic publications on ayahuasca safety, Chacruna Institute, 2019-2024.
Inter-tribal public declarations (Lakota, Diné, and others) against the plastic shamans, 1993-2020.
Dose and effect: a non-linear relationship
Madsen M.K., Fisher P.M., Burmester D. et al., “Psychedelic effects of psilocybin correlate with serotonin 2A receptor occupancy and plasma psilocin levels,” Neuropsychopharmacology, 2019, 44:1328-1334.
Wacker D., Wang S., McCorvy J.D. et al., “Crystal Structure of an LSD-Bound Human Serotonin Receptor,” Cell, 2017, 168(3):377-389.
de la Torre R., Farré M. et al., non-linear pharmacokinetics of MDMA and CYP2D6 inhibition (see the MDMA chapter).
Riba J. et al., oral bioavailability of DMT conditioned by intestinal MAO inhibition (see the Ayahuasca chapter).
Hirschfeld T., Prugger J., Majić T., Schmidt T.T., “Dose-response relationships of LSD-induced subjective experiences in humans,” Neuropsychopharmacology, 2023, 48(11):1602-1611.
Griffiths R.R., Johnson M.W., Richards W.A. et al., “Psilocybin occasioned mystical-type experiences: immediate and persisting dose-related effects,” Psychopharmacology, 2011, 218(4):649-665.
The second ceiling: what really limits a dose
Garcia-Romeu A., Barrett F.S., Carbonaro T.M., Johnson M.W., Griffiths R.R., “Optimal dosing for psilocybin pharmacotherapy: considering weight-adjusted and fixed dosing approaches,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2021, 35(4):353-361.
Spriggs M.J., Giribaldi B., Lyons T. et al., “Body mass index (BMI) does not predict responses to psilocybin,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2023, 37(1):107-116.
Hirschfeld T., Prugger J., Majić T., Schmidt T.T., “Dose-response relationships of LSD-induced subjective experiences in humans,” Neuropsychopharmacology, 2023, 48(11):1602-1611.
Koenig X., Hilber K., “The anti-addiction drug ibogaine and the heart: a delicate relation,” Molecules, 2015, 20(2):2208-2228.
Boyer E.W., Shannon M., “The serotonin syndrome,” New England Journal of Medicine, 2005, 352(11):1112-1120.
Microdosing: promise, proof, and prudence
On the psycholytic / psychedelic distinction and the origin of the terms: Sandison R. (term “psycholytic,” First European Symposium on the therapeutic use of LSD-25, 1960); Leuner H. (German psycholytic school). Synthesis: “Lower-dose psycholytic therapy — a neglected approach,” Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2022, 13:1020505.
Osmond H., “A review of the clinical effects of psychotomimetic agents,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1957 (neologism “psychedelic”); Hoffer A. & Osmond H., North American high-dose model.
Griffiths R.R., Johnson M.W., Richards W.A. et al., “Psilocybin occasioned mystical-type experiences: immediate and persisting dose-related effects,” Psychopharmacology, 2011, 218:649-665 (steps 0, 5, 10, 20, 30 mg/70 kg).
Fadiman J., The Psychedelic Explorer's Guide: Safe, Therapeutic, and Sacred Journeys, Park Street Press, 2011 (“one day in three” protocol); “stack” protocol attributed to Paul Stamets (psilocybin + Hericium erinaceus + niacin).
Ly C., Olson D.E. et al., “Psychedelics Promote Structural and Functional Neural Plasticity,” Cell Reports, 2018, 23(11):3170-3182; Olson D.E., “Psychoplastogens: A Promising Class of Plasticity-Promoting Neurotherapeutics,” Journal of Experimental Neuroscience, 2018.
Szigeti B., Kartner L., Blemings A. et al., “Self-blinding citizen science to explore psychedelic microdosing,” eLife, 2021, 10:e62878.
Polito V. & Liknaitzky P., “Is microdosing a placebo? A rapid review of low-dose LSD and psilocybin research,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2024, 38(8):701-716 (synthesis of dose-dependent effects — Hutten et al., 2020; Murray et al., 2022 — and the measured contribution of expectation — Kaertner et al., 2021).
Tagen M. et al., “The risk of chronic psychedelic and MDMA microdosing for valvular heart disease,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2023 (doi:10.1177/02698811231190865); Rouaud A., Calder A.E., Hasler G., “Microdosing psychedelics and the risk of cardiac fibrosis and valvulopathy: comparison to known cardiotoxins,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2024 (doi:10.1177/02698811231225609) — chronic 5-HT2B agonism; fenfluramine / pergolide / methysergide analogy.
Sewell R.A., Halpern J.H., Pope H.G., “Response of cluster headache to psilocybin and LSD,” Neurology, 2006, 66(12):1920-1922 (low-to-moderate, not sub-perceptual doses).
Ibogaine, noribogaine, and QT prolongation: see the Ibogaine chapter of the present volume (cardiac mechanism and cumulative load). The safety of chronic low-dose exposure is not documented in the primary literature to date.
Tocris #0289; Wikipedia Ibotenic acid (ibotenic in pH 7.4 buffer stable ~1 year).
Keeper of the Trout, “Ayahuasca: alkaloids, plants, and analogs” (Erowid) — concentration by volume reduction, reduction vs oxidation of β-carbolines.
How long does it stay in the blood?
Detection windows: pharmacokinetic orders of magnitude (usual plasma half-lives), indicative and non-forensic values.
What the earth gives, what we take back
Cactus Conservation Institute, cactusconservation.org (post-harvest survival rate, mescaline content of regrowth, legal annual harvest in Texas, endangered status).
Chacruna Institute, “The Global Ayahuasca Boom,” chacruna.net; kahpi.net, “We Are Harvesting the Ayahuasca Vine at an Alarming Rate” (harvest pressure, Iquitos-Pucallpa region, Peru).
Mongabay Brasil and Agência Pública, 2026, citing Eufran Ferreira do Amaral (Embrapa Acre) (unstructured harvest, rising pressure, Brazil).
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), unodc.org, “Cambodia tackles safrole oil production” (extraction, Cardamom Mountains and Botum Sakor park, 2007 seizure at Laem Chabang).
What tradition found, what the market encloses
Georgetown Journal of International Law, “The Promise of Nagoya: Indigenous Reciprocity in the Psychedelic Renaissance,” 2026 (first shipment of iboga compliant with the Nagoya Protocol, May 2023; documented absence of compensation for Mazatec and Bwiti communities).
Eli Lilly and Company, press release “Lilly to acquire AtaiBeckley to advance therapies for treatment-resistant depression and other mental health conditions,” investor.lilly.com, July 16, 2026.
Freedom to Operate, post-grant review petition filed with the USPTO, December 2021; COMPASS Pathways, “key patents upheld by the US Patent and Trademark Office,” 2022-2023.
Psychedelic Drug Development Bullseye Charts, Psychedelic Alpha, supported by Syneos Health, Q3 2026.
Tobacco
Wilbert J., Tobacco and Shamanism in South America, Yale University Press, 1987.
Schultes R.E., Hofmann A., Plants of the Gods: Their Sacred, Healing and Hallucinogenic Powers, Healing Arts Press, 2001 (revised ed.).
WHO, WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic 2023, World Health Organization, 2023.
Newhouse P. et al., “Nicotine treatment of mild cognitive impairment: a 6-month double-blind pilot clinical trial,” Neurology, 2012, 78(2):91-101.
Luna L.E., Vegetalismo: Shamanism among the Mestizo Population of the Peruvian Amazon, Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis, 1986.
Mayer B., “How much nicotine kills a human? Tracing back the generally accepted lethal dose to dubious self-experiments in the nineteenth century,” Archives of Toxicology, 2014, 88(1):5-7.
Rapé · Hapé
Schultes R.E., Hofmann A., Plants of the Gods, op. cit., chapter on the snuffs.
Torres C.M., Repke D.B., Anadenanthera: Visionary Plant of Ancient South America, Haworth Press, 2006.
Frog Tribe Brazil, transmission archives of the tribal recipes, 2018-2024.
Inter-Tribal Committee of Acre, declarations of protection of the traditional recipes, 2019.
Sananga
van Beek T.A. et al., “Tabernaemontana L. (Apocynaceae): A review of its taxonomy, phytochemistry, ethnobotany and pharmacology,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 1984, 10(1):1-156.
Schultes R.E., Raffauf R.F., The Healing Forest: Medicinal and Toxic Plants of the Northwest Amazonia, Dioscorides Press, 1990.
Marinho E.A. et al., ethnopharmacological studies on Tabernaemontana sananho, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 2018.
DMT
Manske R.H.F., “A synthesis of the methyltryptamines and some derivatives,” Canadian Journal of Research, 1931, 5:592-600.
Szára S., “Dimethyltryptamin: its metabolism in man,” Experientia, 1956, 12:441-442.
Strassman R., DMT: The Spirit Molecule, Park Street Press, 2001.
Fontanilla D. et al., “The Hallucinogen N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) Is an Endogenous Sigma-1 Receptor Regulator,” Science, 2009, 323(5916):934-937.
Carbonaro T.M., Gatch M.B., “Neuropharmacology of N,N-dimethyltryptamine,” Brain Research Bulletin, 2016, 126:74-88.
Small Pharma / Cybin, SPL026 regulatory communications, 2022-2024.
Luan L.X. et al., DMTx trials, Imperial College, 2024.
Dean J.G., Liu T., Huff S., Sheler B., Barker S.A., Strassman R.J., Wang M.M., Borjigin J., “Biosynthesis and Extracellular Concentrations of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) in Mammalian Brain,” Scientific Reports, 2019, 9:9333.
Ayahuasca
CONAD, Resolução nº 1, 25 de janeiro de 2010, Dispõe sobre a observância dos preceitos éticos que envolvem o uso religioso da Ayahuasca.
Palhano-Fontes F. et al., “Rapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: a randomized placebo-controlled trial,” Psychological Medicine, 2019, 49(4):655-663.
Domínguez-Clavé E. et al., “Ayahuasca: Pharmacology, neuroscience and therapeutic potential,” Brain Research Bulletin, 2016, 126:89-101.
Reichel-Dolmatoff G., The Shaman and the Jaguar: A Study of Narcotic Drugs Among the Indians of Colombia, Temple University Press, 1975.
Labate B.C., Cavnar C. (eds.), The World Ayahuasca Diaspora, Routledge, 2016.
de Almeida R.N., de Menezes Galvão A.C., da Silva F.S. et al., “Modulation of Serum Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor by a Single Dose of Ayahuasca: Observation From a Randomized Controlled Trial,” Frontiers in Psychology, 2019, 10:1234.
Fotiou E., “The coloniality of power and the politics of ayahuasca,” in Labate B.C. & Cavnar C. (eds.), The World Ayahuasca Diaspora, Routledge, 2016.
Miller M.J., Albarracin-Jordan J., Moore C., Capriles J.M., “Chemical evidence for the use of multiple psychotropic plants in a 1,000-year-old ritual bundle from South America”, PNAS, 2019, 116(23):11207-11212.
Bomfim L.C., “Cantos xamânicos Huni Kuin: cerimônias de ayahuasca, cosmologias e pontes entre mundos”, Revista Vórtex, 2025, 13. DOI: 10.33871/vortex.2025.13.8946
Jurema
Pachter I.J., Zacharias D.E., Ribeiro O., “Indole Alkaloids of Acer saccharinum, Dictyoloma incanescens, Piptadenia colubrina, and Mimosa hostilis,” Journal of Organic Chemistry, 1959, 24(9):1285-1287.
Gonçalves de Lima O., “Observações sobre o vinho da Jurema utilizado pelos índios Pancarú de Tacaratu (Pernambuco),” Arquivos do Instituto de Pesquisas Agronômicas, 1946.
Vepsäläinen J.J. et al., “Isolation and characterization of yuremamine, a new phytoindole,” Planta Medica, 2005, 71(11):1053-1057.
Calvert M.B., Sperry J., “Bioinspired total synthesis and structural revision of yuremamine, an alkaloid from the entheogenic plant Mimosa tenuiflora,” Chemical Communications, 2015, 51:6202-6205.
Schultes R.E., Hofmann A., Plants of the Gods, op. cit. (Jurema section).
Gonçalves de Lima O., “Observações sôbre o ‘vinho da Jurema’ utilizado pelos índios Pancarú de Tacaratú (Pernambuco),” Arquivos do Instituto de Pesquisas Agronômicas, 1946, 4:45-80 — first isolation, from a plant, of a tryptamine (“nigerina,” later identified as DMT).
Jurema intangible heritage: municipal recognitions of the Nordeste (Alhandra-PB, Olinda-PE, and others), 2010-2024.
Harmala & β-carbolines
Flattery D.S., Schwartz M., Haoma and Harmaline: The Botanical Identity of the Indo-Iranian Sacred Hallucinogen “Soma”, University of California Press, 1989.
Göbel F., “Ueber das Harmalin,” Annalen der Pharmacie, 1841, 38(3):363-366.
Hochstein F.A., Paradies A.M., “Alkaloids of Banisteria caapi and Prestonia amazonicum,” JACS, 1957, 79:5735-5736.
Ott J., Ayahuasca Analogues: Pangæan Entheogens, Natural Products Co., 1994.
Morales-García J.A. et al., “The alkaloids of Banisteriopsis caapi, the plant source of the Amazonian hallucinogen Ayahuasca, stimulate adult neurogenesis in vitro,” Scientific Reports, 2017, 7:5309.
Wang P. et al., “A high-throughput chemical screen reveals that harmine-mediated inhibition of DYRK1A increases human pancreatic beta cell replication,” Nature Medicine, 2015, 21:383-388.
Riba J., Valle M., Urbano G. et al., “Human pharmacology of ayahuasca: subjective and cardiovascular effects, monoamine metabolite excretion, and pharmacokinetics,” Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 2003, 306(1):73-83; Riba J., McIlhenny E.H., Valle M. et al., “Metabolism and disposition of N,N-dimethyltryptamine and harmala alkaloids after oral administration of ayahuasca,” Drug Testing and Analysis, 2012, 4(7-8):610-616.
Mahmoudian M., Jalilpour H., Salehian P., “Toxicity of Peganum harmala: Review and a Case Report,” Iranian Journal of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 2002, 1:1-4.
5-MeO-DMT
Hoshino T., Shimodaira K., “Über die Synthese des Bufotenin-methyl-äthers (5-Methoxy-N-dimethyl-tryptamin),” Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie, 1936, 520:19-30.
Speeter M.E., Anthony W.C., “The Action of Oxalyl Chloride on Indoles: A New Approach to Tryptamines,” Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1954, 76(23):6208-6210.
Stromberg V.L., “The isolation of bufotenine from Piptadenia peregrina,” Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1954, 76(6):1707.
Legler G., Tschesche R., “Isolierung von 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamin und weiteren Tryptaminderivaten aus Samen von Piptadenia peregrina,” Naturwissenschaften, 1963, 50:94-95.
Erspamer V., Vitali T., Roseghini M., Cei J.M., “5-Methoxy- and 5-hydroxyindoles in the skin of Bufo alvarius,” Biochemical Pharmacology, 1967, 16(7):1149-1164.
Shulgin A., Shulgin A., TiHKAL: The Continuation, Transform Press, 1997 (5-MeO-DMT entry).
Oroc J., Tryptamine Palace: 5-MeO-DMT and the Sonoran Desert Toad, Park Street Press, 2009.
Davis A.K. et al., “5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) used in a naturalistic group setting is associated with unintended improvements in depression and anxiety,” American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 2019, 45(2):161-169.
Uthaug M.V. et al., “A single inhalation of vapor from dried toad secretion containing 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) in a naturalistic setting is related to sustained enhancement of satisfaction with life, mindfulness-related capacities, and a decrement of psychopathological symptoms,” Psychopharmacology, 2019, 236(9):2653-2666.
Reckweg J.T. et al., “A Phase 1, Dose-Ranging Study to Assess Safety and Psychoactive Effects of a Vaporized 5-Methoxy-N,N-Dimethyltryptamine Formulation (GH001) in Healthy Volunteers,” Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2022, 13:760671.
Torres C.M., Repke D.B., Anadenanthera: Visionary Plant of Ancient South America, Haworth Press, 2006.
Acacia
White E.P., “Evaluation of further legumes, mainly Lupinus and Acacia species, for cyanogenetic glucosides,” New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology, 1957.
Repke D.B., Smith D.B., “Occurrence of N-methyl- and N,N-dimethyltryptamines in Acacia simplicifolia,” Lloydia, 1980.
Ott J., Ayahuasca Analogues: Pangæan Entheogens, op. cit.
Palmer J., Articulations: On the Utilisation and Meanings of Psychedelics, 2014 (sources on changa).
Maslin B.R., Miller J.T., Seigler D.S., “Overview of the generic status of Acacia,” Australian Systematic Botany, 2003.
Bufotenin
Wieland H., Konz W., Mittasch H., “Die Konstitution von Bufotenin und Bufotenidin,” Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie, 1934, 513:1-25.
Fish M.S., Johnson N.M., Horning E.C., “Piptadenia Alkaloids. Indole Bases of P. peregrina and Related Species,” JACS, 1955, 77:5892-5895.
Fabing H.D., Hawkins J.R., “Intravenous bufotenine injection in the human being,” Science, 1956, 123(3203):886-887.
Erspamer V., Vitali T., Roseghini M., Cei J.M., “5-Methoxy- and 5-hydroxyindoles in the skin of Bufo alvarius,” Biochemical Pharmacology, 1967, 16(7):1149-1164.
Ott J., Pharmacotheon, op. cit. (bufotenin chapter).
Torres C.M., Repke D.B., Anadenanthera: Visionary Plant of Ancient South America, op. cit.
Toad secretions
Erspamer V. et al., “5-Methoxy- and 5-hydroxyindoles in the skin of Bufo alvarius,” Biochemical Pharmacology, 1967, 16:1149-1164.
Most A. (pseud.), Bufo Alvarius: The Psychedelic Toad of the Sonoran Desert, Venom Press, 1984.
Davis A.K. et al., “The epidemiology of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) use,” American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 2018, 44(4):473-481.
Frost D.R. et al., “The amphibian tree of life,” Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 2006, 297:1-291 (reclassification as Incilius alvarius).
Erspamer V. et al., “Pharmacological studies of 'sapo' from the frog Phyllomedusa bicolor skin,” Toxicon, 1993, 31(9):1099-1111.
ANVISA, Nota Técnica nº 02/2017/GIMED/GGMON/DIRE5/ANVISA, Brazil, 2017.
Den Brave P.S. et al., “Phyllomedusa bicolor skin secretion and the Kambô ritual,” Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases, 2014, 20:40.
Labate B.C., Lima E.C. (eds.), Hallucinogens and the Human Sciences: A Cambridge Companion, Cambridge University Press, 2024.
IAKP, Code of Conduct and Safety Protocols, 2023 version.
Comité da Aldeia, declaration of São Joaquim, 2018 — inter-peoples communiqué on the traditional transmission of Kambô.
Aquila I., Gratteri S., Sacco M.A., Fineschi V., Magi S., Castaldo P. et al., “The Biological Effects of Kambo: Is There a Relationship Between its Administration and Sudden Death?,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, 2018, 63(3):965-968.
Leban V., Kozelj G., Brvar M., “The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion after giant leaf frog (Phyllomedusa bicolor) venom exposure,” Toxicon, 2016, 120:107-109.
Jaguar
Hoshino T., Shimodaira K., “Synthese der Bufotenine-Methyläther,” Annalen der Chemie, 1936, 520:19-30.
Shulgin A., Shulgin A., TIHKAL: The Continuation, Transform Press, 1997 (5-MeO-DMT entry).
Stromberg V.L., “The isolation of bufotenine from Piptadenia peregrina,” JACS, 1954, 76(6):1707.
Legler G., Tschesche R., “Isolierung von 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamin und weiteren Tryptaminderivaten aus Samen von Piptadenia peregrina,” Naturwissenschaften, 1963, 50:94-95.
GH Research, phase 1/2 trial of GH001 (5-MeO-DMT) in resistant depression, 2023 publication; placebo-controlled phase 2b communiqué (primary endpoint met, placebo-adjusted MADRS reduction of −15.5 points), 03/02/2025.
Beckley Psytech, BPL-003 program communiqués, 2024.
Iboga
Fernandez J.W., Bwiti: An Ethnography of the Religious Imagination in Africa, Princeton University Press, 1982.
Ravalec V., Mallendi, Paicheler A., Bois sacré : initiation à l'iboga, Au diable vauvert, 2004.
Van Gennep A., Les rites de passage, Paris, 1909.
Dybowski J., Landrin E., “Sur l'ibogaïne, principe actif de l'iboga,” Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci., 1901, 133:748.
Alper K.R. et al., “Treatment of acute opioid withdrawal with ibogaine,” American Journal on Addictions, 1999.
Cherian K.N., Keynan J.N., Anker L., Faerman A. et al., “Magnesium–ibogaine therapy in veterans with traumatic brain injuries,” Nature Medicine, 2024, 30(2):373-381.
Schenberg E.E. et al., “Treating drug dependence with the aid of ibogaine,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2014.
Republic of Gabon, decree no. 0239/PR/MJSRCAVA of May 22, 2026 regulating the access, use, exploitation, research, transformation, and commercialization of iboga, its derivatives, and the associated traditional knowledge [text in the Official Journal to be confirmed].
Y. Guignon (Blessings of the Forest-Gabon), op-ed “Iboga : le Gabon affirme sa souveraineté sur un patrimoine stratégique mondial,” GabonReview, May 2026; D. Nassim, ibogaine “blood diamond,” Lucid News, 2022; INTERPOL, report on the illicit trafficking of iboga, 2023.
Ibogaine
Bartlett M.F., Dickel D.F., Taylor W.I., “The alkaloids of Tabernanthe iboga,” JACS, 1958, 80(1):126-136.
Alper K.R. et al., “Fatalities temporally associated with the ingestion of ibogaine,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, 2012, 57(2):398-412.
Brunt T.M., “Rare but relevant: ibogaine and cardiovascular complications — prolonged QT interval and ventricular arrhythmias,” Addiction, 2026 (doi:10.1111/add.70319) — review synthesizing cardiac events at therapeutic doses, QTc thresholds, dose/EC50 modeling, and the limited efficacy of interventions.
Knuijver T. et al., “Safety of ibogaine administration in detoxification of opioid-dependent individuals: a descriptive open-label observational study,” Addiction, 2022 (doi:10.1111/add.15448) — monitored cohort (n=14, 10 mg/kg) documenting the incidence of QTc prolongation.
Brown T.K., Alper K., “Treatment of opioid use disorder with ibogaine,” American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 2018.
Cherian K.N., Keynan J.N., Anker L., Faerman A. et al., “Magnesium–ibogaine therapy in veterans with traumatic brain injuries,” Nature Medicine, 2024, 30(2):373-381.
Glick S.D., Kuehne M.E., Maisonneuve I.M. et al., “18-Methoxycoronaridine, a non-toxic iboga alkaloid congener: effects on morphine and cocaine self-administration and on mesolimbic dopamine release in rats,” Brain Research, 1996, 719(1-2):29-35; Glick S.D., Maisonneuve I.M., Szumlinski K.K., “18-Methoxycoronaridine (18-MC) and ibogaine: comparison of antiaddictive efficacy, toxicity, and mechanisms of action,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 2000, 914:369-386.
ANVISA / SENAPRED, Nota Técnica nº 64/2020 (disapproval of the use of ibogaine), Brazil, 2020.
United States, Executive Order 14401, “Accelerating Medical Treatments for Serious Mental Illness,” April 18, 2026; Federal Register, vol. 91, no. 77, FR Doc. 2026-07907, April 22, 2026; presidential compilation govinfo DCPD-202600269.
The White House, “Fact Sheet: President Donald J. Trump is Accelerating Medical Treatments for Serious Mental Illness,” April 18, 2026.
Mescaline
Heffter A., “Ueber Pellote,” Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archiv, 1898, 40:385-429.
Späth E., “Über die Anhalonium-Alkaloide,” Monatshefte für Chemie, 1919, 40:129-154.
Klüver H., Mescal and Mechanisms of Hallucination, University of Chicago Press, 1928.
Huxley A., The Doors of Perception, Chatto & Windus, 1954.
Shulgin A., Shulgin A., PiHKAL: A Chemical Love Story, Transform Press, 1991.
Garcia-Romeu A. et al., “Persisting reductions in cannabis, opioid, and stimulant misuse after naturalistic mescaline use,” Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2022.
Peyote
La Barre W., The Peyote Cult, Yale University Press, 1938 (repr. 1989).
Bergman R.L., “Navajo peyote use: its apparent safety,” American Journal of Psychiatry, 1971, 128(6):695-699.
Schaefer S.B., Furst P.T. (eds.), People of the Peyote, University of New Mexico Press, 1996.
Regional Wixárika Council, declarations on Wirikuta, 2010-2024.
Trout K., Trout's Notes on Sacred Cacti, Mydriatic Productions, 2007.
San Pedro · Huachuma
Sharon D., Wizard of the Four Winds: A Shaman's Story, Free Press, 1978.
Joralemon D., Sharon D., Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru, University of Utah Press, 1993.
Schultes R.E., Hofmann A., Plants of the Gods, op. cit. (San Pedro chapter).
Trout K., San Pedro & Related Trichocereus Species, Mydriatic Productions, 2014.
Ostolaza C., Cactus del Perú, Lima, 2014.
Bussmann R.W., Sharon D., “Traditional medicinal plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture,” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 2006, 2:47; Bussmann R.W., Sharon D., Medicinal Plants of the Andes and the Amazon — The Magic and Medicinal Flora of Northern Peru, William L. Brown Center, 2015.
MDMA
Shulgin A., Shulgin A., PiHKAL: A Chemical Love Story, Transform Press, 1991 (MDMA entry).
Greer G., Tolbert R., “Subjective reports of the effects of MDMA in a clinical setting,” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 1986, 18(4):319-327.
Mithoefer M.C. et al., “The safety and efficacy of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for PTSD,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2018, 32(7):838-845.
Mitchell J.M. et al., “MDMA-assisted therapy for severe PTSD: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 study,” Nature Medicine, 2021, 27:1025-1033.
Mitchell J.M. et al., “MDMA-assisted therapy for moderate to severe PTSD: a randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial,” Nature Medicine, 2023, 29:2473-2480.
Nichols D.E., “Differences between the mechanism of action of MDMA, MBDB, and the classic hallucinogens,” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 1986, 18(4):305-313.
FDA, Advisory Committee Briefing Documents on Lykos NDA, June–August 2024; Complete Response Letter (redacted version made public September 4, 2025).
MAPS / Lykos Therapeutics / Resilient Pharmaceuticals, official communications on the restructuring (2024), the rebrand (2025), and the resubmission of the MDMA-AT dossier (end of 2025).
Mueller F., Lenz C., Dolder P.C., Lang U.E., Schmidt A., Liechti M.E., Borgwardt S., “Neuroimaging in moderate MDMA use: A systematic review,” Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2016, 62:21-34.
Heifets B.D. et al., “Distinct neural mechanisms for the prosocial and rewarding properties of MDMA,” Science Translational Medicine, 2019, 11(522):eaaw6435.
Psilocybes
Wasson R.G., “Seeking the Magic Mushroom,” Life Magazine, May 13, 1957.
Hofmann A. et al., “Psilocybin und Psilocin, zwei psychotrope Wirkstoffe aus mexikanischen Rauschpilzen,” Helvetica Chimica Acta, 1959, 42:1557-1572.
Griffiths R.R. et al., Psychopharmacology, 2006, 187(3):268-283.
Carhart-Harris R.L. et al., “Trial of Psilocybin versus Escitalopram for Depression,” NEJM, 2021, 384:1402-1411.
Bogenschutz M.P. et al., JAMA Psychiatry, 2022, 79(10):953-962.
Compass Pathways, Topline Results COMP005 and COMP006 Phase 3 Program, official data February 17, 2026.
Guzmán G., Pollock S.H., “A new bluing species of Psilocybe from Florida, U.S.A.” (Psilocybe tampanensis), Mycotaxon, 1978, 7:373-376.
Gartz J., Magic Mushrooms Around the World, LIS Publications, 1996 (sclerotia and contents).
Reunion Neuroscience, official communications on luvésilocine (RE104): FDA Breakthrough Therapy designation in postpartum depression (February 23, 2026); presentation of full RECONNECT phase 2 trial data (ASCP/APA, May 2026); Bryson N. et al., “RE104: synthesis and activity of a novel serotonergic psychedelic prodrug of 4-Hydroxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine,” ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 2024, 15(12):2386-2395.
AbbVie, press release “AbbVie to Acquire Gilgamesh Pharmaceuticals' Bretisilocin” (August 25, 2025); Gilgamesh Pharmaceuticals, GM-2505 phase 2a topline results in major depression (May 27, 2025).
Cleveland Clinic, ConsultQD, “Hypertensive Crisis Linked to Psilocybin Mushroom Use in Patient Taking MAOI and Amphetamine,” consulted online, 2024 [reference to the original case report to be verified].
DoubleBlind Magazine, “An Intro to Psilohuasca: The Latest, Understudied Psychedelic Drug Combination,” consulted online.
Tripsitter, “Blue Honey: What Is It & Does It Actually Work?,” consulted online (critical treatment of the preservation and potency claims).
Allegro J.M., The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross, Hodder & Stoughton, 1970.
Ott J., Pharmacotheon, Natural Products Co., 1996.
Saar M., “Fungi in Khanty folk medicine,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 1991, 31(2):175-179.
Michelot D., Melendez-Howell L.M., “Amanita muscaria: chemistry, biology, toxicology, and ethnomycology,” Mycological Research, 2003, 107(2):131-146.
Diaz J., “Amanita muscaria: gummy bears, illegal in some states, the legal psychoactive,” Journal of Medical Toxicology, 2023.
LSD
Hofmann A., LSD: My Problem Child, McGraw-Hill, 1979.
Stoll W.A., “Lysergsäure-diäthylamid, ein Phantastikum aus der Mutterkorngruppe,” Schweizer Archiv für Neurologie und Psychiatrie, 1947, 60:279-323.
Gasser P. et al., “Safety and Efficacy of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide-Assisted Psychotherapy for Anxiety Associated With Life-threatening Diseases,” Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 2014, 202(7):513-520.
Carhart-Harris R.L. et al., “Neural correlates of the LSD experience revealed by multimodal neuroimaging,” PNAS, 2016, 113(17):4853-4858.
Krebs T.S., Johansen P.Ø., “Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) for alcoholism: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2012, 26(7):994-1002.
Fuentes J.J. et al., “Therapeutic Use of LSD in Psychiatry: A Systematic Review of Randomized-Controlled Clinical Trials,” Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2020, 10:943.
Garcia-Romeu A. et al., “Cessation and reduction in alcohol consumption and misuse after psychedelic use,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2019, 33(9):1088-1101.
Bogenschutz M.P. et al., “Percentage of Heavy Drinking Days Following Psilocybin-Assisted Psychotherapy vs Placebo in Adult Patients With Alcohol Use Disorder,” JAMA Psychiatry, 2022, 79(10):953-962.
Szigeti B. et al., “Self-blinding citizen science to explore psychedelic microdosing,” eLife, 2021, 10:e62878.
Riegel A., Paille F., “La promesse des psychédéliques : LSD et psilocybine dans les troubles de l'usage d'alcool,” Alcoologie et Addictologie, 2024, T44 N3 (French-language synthesis review).
Sewell R.A., Halpern J.H., Pope H.G. Jr., “Response of cluster headache to psilocybin and LSD,” Neurology, 2006, 66(12):1920-1922.
MindMed / Definium Therapeutics, official communications MM-120 ODT then DT120 ODT, Voyage (NCT06741228), Panorama, Emerge, and Ascend trials, 2024-2026; announcement of the topline results of the Emerge phase 3 trial (major depression), June 22, 2026; announcement of the MindMed → Definium Therapeutics rebrand, January 12, 2026.
Robison R., Barrow R., Conant C. et al., “Single Treatment With MM120 (Lysergide) in Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial,” JAMA, 2025, 334(15):1358-1372.
Lee M.A., Shlain B., Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD, Grove Press, 1985.
Church Committee (United States), report on the abuses of the MK-Ultra program, 1975-1976.
LSA
Hofmann A., Tscherter H., “Isolierung von Lysergsäure-Alkaloiden aus der mexikanischen Zauberdroge Ololiuqui (Rivea corymbosa (L.) Hall. f.),” Experientia, 1960, 16:414.
Schultes R.E., “A Contribution to our Knowledge of Rivea corymbosa, the Narcotic Ololiuqui of the Aztecs,” Botanical Museum, Harvard University, 1941.
Schultes R.E., Hofmann A., Rätsch C., Plants of the Gods, Healing Arts Press, 2001 (chap. “Ololiuqui — Vines of the Serpent”).
Hernández F., Rerum medicarum Novae Hispaniae thesaurus, Rome, 1651 (manuscript 1570-1577).
Sahagún B. de, Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España (Florentine Codex), 16th century.
Wasson R.G., “Notes on the Present Status of Ololiuhqui and the Other Hallucinogens of Mexico,” Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 1963, 20:161-193.
Paulke A. et al., “Analysis of lysergic acid amide in human serum and urine after ingestion of Argyreia nervosa seeds,” Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 2012.
Klinke H.B., Müller I.B. et al., pharmacological data on the seeds of Argyreia nervosa (Hawaiian Baby Woodrose) — case series and dosages.
“Lysergic Acid Amide (LSA), an LSD Analog: Systematic Review of Pharmacological Effects, Adverse Outcomes, and Therapeutic Potentials,” Pharmacy (Basel), 2025, 13(4):98.
Castro P., Maia J., “Investigating LSA — a 'legal high' analogue to LSD,” European Psychiatry, 2024, 67(Suppl. 1):S553-S554.
Rätsch C., Enzyklopädie der psychoaktiven Pflanzen (entries Turbina, Ipomoea, Argyreia).
Salvia divinorum
Wasson R.G., “A new Mexican psychotropic drug from the mint family,” Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 1962, 20:77-84.
Ortega A. et al., “Salvinorin, a new trans-neoclerodane diterpene from Salvia divinorum (Labiatae),” Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions 1, 1982:2505-2508.
Valdés L.J. et al., “Divinorin A, a psychotropic terpenoid from Salvia divinorum,” Journal of Organic Chemistry, 1984, 49:4716-4720.
Roth B.L. et al., “Salvinorin A: a potent naturally occurring nonnitrogenous κ opioid selective agonist,” PNAS, 2002, 99(18):11934-11939.
Siebert D.J., “Salvia divinorum and salvinorin A: new pharmacologic findings,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 1994, 43(1):53-56.
Sheffler D.J., Roth B.L., “Salvinorin A: the 'magic mint' hallucinogen finds a molecular target in the kappa opioid receptor,” Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 2003, 24(3):107-109.
Caffeine
Runge F.F., communication on the isolation of caffeine, 1819 (Berlin Akademie report).
Lu Yu, Cha Jing (Classic of Tea), China, c. 760 (Carpenter critical edition 1974).
Schmidt B. et al., “Caffeine therapy for apnea of prematurity,” New England Journal of Medicine, 2007, 354:2112-2121.
Costa J. et al., “Caffeine exposure and the risk of Parkinson's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies,” Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 2010, 20(S1):S221-S238.
Pendergrast M., Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World, Basic Books, 1999.
Standage T., A History of the World in 6 Glasses, Walker & Company, 2005 (coffee and tea chapter).
EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies, “Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine,” EFSA Journal, 2015, 13(5):4102.
Cacao
Powis T.G., Cyphers A., Gaikwad N.W., Grivetti L., Cheong K., “Cacao use and the San Lorenzo Olmec,” PNAS, 2011, 108(21):8595-8600.
Zarrillo S. et al., “The use and domestication of Theobroma cacao during the mid-Holocene in the upper Amazon,” Nature Ecology & Evolution, 2018, 2:1879-1888.
Coe S.D., Coe M.D., The True History of Chocolate, Thames & Hudson, 1996 (repr. 2013).
Mastroiacovo D. et al., “Cocoa flavanol consumption improves cognitive function, blood pressure control, and metabolic profile in elderly subjects,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2015, 101(3):538-548.
Brickman A.M. et al., “Enhancing dentate gyrus function with dietary flavanols improves cognition in older adults,” Nature Neuroscience, 2014, 17:1798-1803.
Scholey A.B. et al., “Consumption of cocoa flavanols results in acute improvements in mood and cognitive performance during sustained mental effort,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2010, 24(10):1505-1514.
Hooper L. et al., “Effects of chocolate, cocoa and flavan-3-ols on cardiovascular health: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2012, 95(3):740-751.
Cacao
Schultes R.E., Hofmann A., Plants of the Gods, op. cit. (chapters on Solanaceae, Anadenanthera, Cannabis).
Lorenzi H., Matos F.J.A., Plantas Medicinais no Brasil: Nativas e Exóticas, Instituto Plantarum, 2008.
Albuquerque U.P. et al., Encyclopedia of Brazilian Ethnobotany, successive publications 2010-2020.
Torres C.M., Repke D.B., Anadenanthera: Visionary Plant of Ancient South America, Haworth Press, 2006.
Plowman T., publications on Erythroxylum coca, 1980s–90s.
Mr-Ginseng.com, articles on Brazilian medicinal plants, accessed 2026.
Alphabetical index
AbbVie, press release “AbbVie to Acquire Gilgamesh Pharmaceuticals' Bretisilocin” (August 25, 2025); Gilgamesh Pharmaceuticals, GM-2505 phase 2a topline results in major depression (May 27, 2025).
Albuquerque U.P. et al., Encyclopedia of Brazilian Ethnobotany, successive publications 2010-2020.
Allegro J.M., The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross, Hodder & Stoughton, 1970.
Alper K.R. et al., “Fatalities temporally associated with the ingestion of ibogaine,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, 2012, 57(2):398-412.
Alper K.R. et al., “Treatment of acute opioid withdrawal with ibogaine,” American Journal on Addictions, 1999.
Alper K.R., “Ibogaine: A Review”, The Alkaloids, 2001 (melting 152–153 °C; degraded by heat and light).
ANVISA / SENAPRED, Nota Técnica nº 64/2020 (disapproval of the use of ibogaine), Brazil, 2020.
ANVISA, Nota Técnica nº 02/2017/GIMED/GGMON/DIRE5/ANVISA, Brazil, 2017.
Aquila I., Gratteri S., Sacco M.A., Fineschi V., Magi S., Castaldo P. et al., “The Biological Effects of Kambo: Is There a Relationship Between its Administration and Sudden Death?,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, 2018, 63(3):965-968.
Aronovich A., academic publications on ayahuasca safety, Chacruna Institute, 2019-2024.
Bartlett M.F., Dickel D.F., Taylor W.I., “The alkaloids of Tabernanthe iboga,” JACS, 1958, 80(1):126-136.
Beckley Psytech, BPL-003 program communiqués, 2024.
Bergman R.L., “Navajo peyote use: its apparent safety,” American Journal of Psychiatry, 1971, 128(6):695-699.
Bogenschutz M.P. et al., JAMA Psychiatry, 2022, 79(10):953-962.
Bogenschutz M.P. et al., “Percentage of Heavy Drinking Days Following Psilocybin-Assisted Psychotherapy vs Placebo in Adult Patients With Alcohol Use Disorder,” JAMA Psychiatry, 2022, 79(10):953-962.
Bomfim L.C., “Cantos xamânicos Huni Kuin: cerimônias de ayahuasca, cosmologias e pontes entre mundos”, Revista Vórtex, 2025, 13. DOI: 10.33871/vortex.2025.13.8946
Boyer E.W., Shannon M., “The serotonin syndrome,” New England Journal of Medicine, 2005, 352(11):1112-1120.
Brickman A.M. et al., “Enhancing dentate gyrus function with dietary flavanols improves cognition in older adults,” Nature Neuroscience, 2014, 17:1798-1803.
Brown T.K., Alper K., “Treatment of opioid use disorder with ibogaine,” American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 2018.
Brunt T.M., “Rare but relevant: ibogaine and cardiovascular complications — prolonged QT interval and ventricular arrhythmias,” Addiction, 2026 (doi:10.1111/add.70319) — review synthesizing cardiac events at therapeutic doses, QTc thresholds, dose/EC50 modeling, and the limited efficacy of interventions.
Bussmann R.W., Sharon D., “Traditional medicinal plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing culture,” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 2006, 2:47; Bussmann R.W., Sharon D., Medicinal Plants of the Andes and the Amazon — The Magic and Medicinal Flora of Northern Peru, William L. Brown Center, 2015.
Cactus Conservation Institute, cactusconservation.org (post-harvest survival rate, mescaline content of regrowth, legal annual harvest in Texas, endangered status).
Calvert M.B., Sperry J., “Bioinspired total synthesis and structural revision of yuremamine, an alkaloid from the entheogenic plant Mimosa tenuiflora,” Chemical Communications, 2015, 51:6202-6205.
Carbonaro T.M., Gatch M.B., “Neuropharmacology of N,N-dimethyltryptamine,” Brain Research Bulletin, 2016, 126:74-88.
Carhart-Harris R.L. et al., “Neural correlates of the LSD experience revealed by multimodal neuroimaging,” PNAS, 2016, 113(17):4853-4858.
Carhart-Harris R.L. et al., “Trial of Psilocybin versus Escitalopram for Depression,” NEJM, 2021, 384:1402-1411.
Castro P., Maia J., “Investigating LSA — a 'legal high' analogue to LSD,” European Psychiatry, 2024, 67(Suppl. 1):S553-S554.
Cayman Chemical, N,N-DMT product sheet (stability ≥5 years at –20 °C).
Chacruna Institute for Psychedelic Plant Medicines, Ayahuasca Community Guide for the Awareness of Sexual Abuse, San Francisco, 2018 (updated 2020, 2023).
Chacruna Institute for Psychedelic Plant Medicines, Guidelines for the Awareness of Sexual Abuse and Ethical Conduct in Ayahuasca Ceremonies, San Francisco, 2018 (updated 2020, 2023).
Chacruna Institute, “The Global Ayahuasca Boom,” chacruna.net; kahpi.net, “We Are Harvesting the Ayahuasca Vine at an Alarming Rate” (harvest pressure, Iquitos-Pucallpa region, Peru).
Cherian K.N., Keynan J.N., Anker L., Faerman A. et al., “Magnesium–ibogaine therapy in veterans with traumatic brain injuries,” Nature Medicine, 2024, 30(2):373-381.
Church Committee (United States), report on the abuses of the MK-Ultra program, 1975-1976.
Cleveland Clinic, ConsultQD, “Hypertensive Crisis Linked to Psilocybin Mushroom Use in Patient Taking MAOI and Amphetamine,” consulted online, 2024 [reference to the original case report to be verified].
Coe S.D., Coe M.D., The True History of Chocolate, Thames & Hudson, 1996 (repr. 2013).
Comité da Aldeia, declaration of São Joaquim, 2018 — inter-peoples communiqué on the traditional transmission of Kambô.
Compass Pathways, Topline Results COMP005 and COMP006 Phase 3 Program, official data February 17, 2026.
CONAD, Resolução nº 1, 25 de janeiro de 2010, Dispõe sobre a observância dos preceitos éticos que envolvem o uso religioso da Ayahuasca.
Costa J. et al., “Caffeine exposure and the risk of Parkinson's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies,” Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 2010, 20(S1):S221-S238.
D. J. McKenna, G. H. N. Towers, F. Abbott, "Monoamine oxidase inhibitors in South American hallucinogenic plants: tryptamine and β-carboline constituents of ayahuasca," Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 1984.
Davis A.K. et al., “5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) used in a naturalistic group setting is associated with unintended improvements in depression and anxiety,” American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 2019, 45(2):161-169.
Davis A.K. et al., “The epidemiology of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) use,” American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 2018, 44(4):473-481.
de Almeida R.N., de Menezes Galvão A.C., da Silva F.S. et al., “Modulation of Serum Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor by a Single Dose of Ayahuasca: Observation From a Randomized Controlled Trial,” Frontiers in Psychology, 2019, 10:1234.
de la Torre R., Farré M. et al., non-linear pharmacokinetics of MDMA and CYP2D6 inhibition (see the MDMA chapter).
Dean J.G., Liu T., Huff S., Sheler B., Barker S.A., Strassman R.J., Wang M.M., Borjigin J., “Biosynthesis and Extracellular Concentrations of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) in Mammalian Brain,” Scientific Reports, 2019, 9:9333.
Den Brave P.S. et al., “Phyllomedusa bicolor skin secretion and the Kambô ritual,” Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases, 2014, 20:40.
Detection windows: pharmacokinetic orders of magnitude (usual plasma half-lives), indicative and non-forensic values.
Diaz J., “Amanita muscaria: gummy bears, illegal in some states, the legal psychoactive,” Journal of Medical Toxicology, 2023.
DMT-Nexus Wiki, Chemical & Physical Properties (vaporization markers, community source).
Domínguez-Clavé E. et al., “Ayahuasca: Pharmacology, neuroscience and therapeutic potential,” Brain Research Bulletin, 2016, 126:89-101.
DoubleBlind Magazine, “An Intro to Psilohuasca: The Latest, Understudied Psychedelic Drug Combination,” consulted online.
drugfuture / Merck; The Alkaloids Vol. III (mescaline: base 35–36 °C, salts 180–186 °C).
Dybowski J., Landrin E., “Sur l'ibogaïne, principe actif de l'iboga,” Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci., 1901, 133:748.
EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies, “Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine,” EFSA Journal, 2015, 13(5):4102.
Eli Lilly and Company, press release “Lilly to acquire AtaiBeckley to advance therapies for treatment-resistant depression and other mental health conditions,” investor.lilly.com, July 16, 2026.
Erspamer V. et al., “5-Methoxy- and 5-hydroxyindoles in the skin of Bufo alvarius,” Biochemical Pharmacology, 1967, 16:1149-1164.
Erspamer V. et al., “Pharmacological studies of 'sapo' from the frog Phyllomedusa bicolor skin,” Toxicon, 1993, 31(9):1099-1111.
Erspamer V., Vitali T., Roseghini M., Cei J.M., “5-Methoxy- and 5-hydroxyindoles in the skin of Bufo alvarius,” Biochemical Pharmacology, 1967, 16(7):1149-1164.
EUDA Salvia drug profile; Ansari et al. (photodegradation, UV t½ a few minutes); MDPI IJMS 26:5588, 2025.
Fabing H.D., Hawkins J.R., “Intravenous bufotenine injection in the human being,” Science, 1956, 123(3203):886-887.
Fadiman J., The Psychedelic Explorer's Guide: Safe, Therapeutic, and Sacred Journeys, Park Street Press, 2011 (“one day in three” protocol); “stack” protocol attributed to Paul Stamets (psilocybin + Hericium erinaceus + niacin).
Fairbairn J.W. et al., “The stability of cannabis and its preparations on storage”, J Pharm Pharmacol 28:1, 1976.
FDA, Advisory Committee Briefing Documents on Lykos NDA, June–August 2024; Complete Response Letter (redacted version made public September 4, 2025).
Fernandez J.W., Bwiti: An Ethnography of the Religious Imagination in Africa, Princeton University Press, 1982.
Fish M.S., Johnson N.M., Horning E.C., “Piptadenia Alkaloids. Indole Bases of P. peregrina and Related Species,” JACS, 1955, 77:5892-5895.
Flattery D.S., Schwartz M., Haoma and Harmaline: The Botanical Identity of the Indo-Iranian Sacred Hallucinogen “Soma”, University of California Press, 1989.
Fontanilla D. et al., “The Hallucinogen N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) Is an Endogenous Sigma-1 Receptor Regulator,” Science, 2009, 323(5916):934-937.
Fotiou E., “The coloniality of power and the politics of ayahuasca,” in Labate B.C. & Cavnar C. (eds.), The World Ayahuasca Diaspora, Routledge, 2016.
Freedom to Operate, post-grant review petition filed with the USPTO, December 2021; COMPASS Pathways, “key patents upheld by the US Patent and Trademark Office,” 2022-2023.
Frog Tribe Brazil, transmission archives of the tribal recipes, 2018-2024.
Frost D.R. et al., “The amphibian tree of life,” Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 2006, 297:1-291 (reclassification as Incilius alvarius).
Fuentes J.J. et al., “Therapeutic Use of LSD in Psychiatry: A Systematic Review of Randomized-Controlled Clinical Trials,” Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2020, 10:943.
Garcia-Romeu A. et al., “Cessation and reduction in alcohol consumption and misuse after psychedelic use,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2019, 33(9):1088-1101.
Garcia-Romeu A. et al., “Persisting reductions in cannabis, opioid, and stimulant misuse after naturalistic mescaline use,” Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2022.
Garcia-Romeu A., Barrett F.S., Carbonaro T.M., Johnson M.W., Griffiths R.R., “Optimal dosing for psilocybin pharmacotherapy: considering weight-adjusted and fixed dosing approaches,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2021, 35(4):353-361.
Gartz J., Magic Mushrooms Around the World, LIS Publications, 1996 (sclerotia and contents).
Gasser P. et al., “Safety and Efficacy of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide-Assisted Psychotherapy for Anxiety Associated With Life-threatening Diseases,” Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 2014, 202(7):513-520.
Gaujac A. et al., “DMT polymorphism”, Microchemical Journal, 2013 (crystalline forms / DSC-XRD).
Georgetown Journal of International Law, “The Promise of Nagoya: Indigenous Reciprocity in the Psychedelic Renaissance,” 2026 (first shipment of iboga compliant with the Nagoya Protocol, May 2023; documented absence of compensation for Mazatec and Bwiti communities).
GH Research, phase 1/2 trial of GH001 (5-MeO-DMT) in resistant depression, 2023 publication; placebo-controlled phase 2b communiqué (primary endpoint met, placebo-adjusted MADRS reduction of −15.5 points), 03/02/2025.
Glick S.D., Kuehne M.E., Maisonneuve I.M. et al., “18-Methoxycoronaridine, a non-toxic iboga alkaloid congener: effects on morphine and cocaine self-administration and on mesolimbic dopamine release in rats,” Brain Research, 1996, 719(1-2):29-35; Glick S.D., Maisonneuve I.M., Szumlinski K.K., “18-Methoxycoronaridine (18-MC) and ibogaine: comparison of antiaddictive efficacy, toxicity, and mechanisms of action,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 2000, 914:369-386.
Göbel F., “Ueber das Harmalin,” Annalen der Pharmacie, 1841, 38(3):363-366.
Gonçalves de Lima O., “Observações sobre o vinho da Jurema utilizado pelos índios Pancarú de Tacaratu (Pernambuco),” Arquivos do Instituto de Pesquisas Agronômicas, 1946.
Gonçalves de Lima O., “Observações sôbre o ‘vinho da Jurema’ utilizado pelos índios Pancarú de Tacaratú (Pernambuco),” Arquivos do Instituto de Pesquisas Agronômicas, 1946, 4:45-80 — first isolation, from a plant, of a tryptamine (“nigerina,” later identified as DMT).
Gotvaldová K. et al., “Stability of psilocybin and its analogs”, 2021 (P. cubensis biomass, up to 15 months).
Greer G., Tolbert R., “Subjective reports of the effects of MDMA in a clinical setting,” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 1986, 18(4):319-327.
Griffiths R.R. et al., Psychopharmacology, 2006, 187(3):268-283.
Griffiths R.R., Johnson M.W., Richards W.A. et al., “Psilocybin occasioned mystical-type experiences: immediate and persisting dose-related effects,” Psychopharmacology, 2011, 218(4):649-665.
Guzmán G., Pollock S.H., “A new bluing species of Psilocybe from Florida, U.S.A.” (Psilocybe tampanensis), Mycotaxon, 1978, 7:373-376.
Hartogsohn I., “Constructing drug effects: A history of set and setting,” Drug Science, Policy and Law, 2017, 3:1-17.
Hartogsohn I., “Set and setting, psychedelics and the placebo response: An extra-pharmacological perspective on psychopharmacology,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2016, 30(12):1259-1267.
Heffter A., “Ueber Pellote,” Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archiv, 1898, 40:385-429.
Heifets B.D. et al., “Distinct neural mechanisms for the prosocial and rewarding properties of MDMA,” Science Translational Medicine, 2019, 11(522):eaaw6435.
Hernández F., Rerum medicarum Novae Hispaniae thesaurus, Rome, 1651 (manuscript 1570-1577).
Hirschfeld T., Prugger J., Majić T., Schmidt T.T., “Dose-response relationships of LSD-induced subjective experiences in humans,” Neuropsychopharmacology, 2023, 48(11):1602-1611.
Hochstein F.A., Paradies A.M., “Alkaloids of Banisteria caapi and Prestonia amazonicum,” JACS, 1957, 79:5735-5736.
Hofmann A. et al., “Psilocybin und Psilocin, zwei psychotrope Wirkstoffe aus mexikanischen Rauschpilzen,” Helvetica Chimica Acta, 1959, 42:1557-1572.
Hofmann A., LSD: My Problem Child, McGraw-Hill, 1979.
Hofmann A., Tscherter H., “Isolierung von Lysergsäure-Alkaloiden aus der mexikanischen Zauberdroge Ololiuqui (Rivea corymbosa (L.) Hall. f.),” Experientia, 1960, 16:414.
Hooper L. et al., “Effects of chocolate, cocoa and flavan-3-ols on cardiovascular health: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2012, 95(3):740-751.
Hoshino T., Shimodaira K., “Synthese der Bufotenine-Methyläther,” Annalen der Chemie, 1936, 520:19-30.
Hoshino T., Shimodaira K., “Über die Synthese des Bufotenin-methyl-äthers (5-Methoxy-N-dimethyl-tryptamin),” Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie, 1936, 520:19-30.
Huxley A., The Doors of Perception, Chatto & Windus, 1954.
IAKP, Code of Conduct and Safety Protocols, 2023 version.
Ibogaine, noribogaine, and QT prolongation: see the Ibogaine chapter of the present volume (cardiac mechanism and cumulative load). The safety of chronic low-dose exposure is not documented in the primary literature to date.
Inter-Tribal Committee of Acre, declarations of protection of the traditional recipes, 2019.
Inter-tribal public declarations (Lakota, Diné, and others) against the plastic shamans, 1993-2020.
J. C. Callaway et al., "Pharmacokinetics of Hoasca alkaloids in healthy humans," Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 1999.
Joralemon D., Sharon D., Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru, University of Utah Press, 1993.
Jurema intangible heritage: municipal recognitions of the Nordeste (Alhandra-PB, Olinda-PE, and others), 2010-2024.
K. E. Caudle et al., "Standardizing CYP2D6 genotype-to-phenotype translation (Activity Score)," CPIC consortium, 2020; DPWG (KNMP) guidelines for phenotype translation.
Keeper of the Trout, “Ayahuasca: alkaloids, plants, and analogs” (Erowid) — concentration by volume reduction, reduction vs oxidation of β-carbolines.
Klinke H.B., Müller I.B. et al., pharmacological data on the seeds of Argyreia nervosa (Hawaiian Baby Woodrose) — case series and dosages.
Klüver H., Mescal and Mechanisms of Hallucination, University of Chicago Press, 1928.
Knuijver T. et al., “Safety of ibogaine administration in detoxification of opioid-dependent individuals: a descriptive open-label observational study,” Addiction, 2022 (doi:10.1111/add.15448) — monitored cohort (n=14, 10 mg/kg) documenting the incidence of QTc prolongation.
Koenig X., Hilber K., “The anti-addiction drug ibogaine and the heart: a delicate relation,” Molecules, 2015, 20(2):2208-2228.
Kontrimavičiūtė V. et al., “Ibogaine/noribogaine stability”, J Liq Chromatogr Relat Technol, 2007 (t½ 81 min in light).
Krebs T.S., Johansen P.Ø., “Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) for alcoholism: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2012, 26(7):994-1002.
La Barre W., The Peyote Cult, Yale University Press, 1938 (repr. 1989).
Labate B.C., Cavnar C. (eds.), Ayahuasca Shamanism in the Amazon and Beyond, Oxford University Press, 2014.
Labate B.C., Cavnar C. (eds.), The World Ayahuasca Diaspora, Routledge, 2016.
Labate B.C., Lima E.C. (eds.), Hallucinogens and the Human Sciences: A Cambridge Companion, Cambridge University Press, 2024.
Lanaro R. et al., “Stability of ayahuasca alkaloids”, Molecules 25(9):2072, 2020 (brew: harmaline –24/–38 %, THH –68 %).
Leary T., Metzner R., Alpert R., The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead, University Books, 1964.
Leban V., Kozelj G., Brvar M., “The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion after giant leaf frog (Phyllomedusa bicolor) venom exposure,” Toxicon, 2016, 120:107-109.
Lee M.A., Shlain B., Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD, Grove Press, 1985.
Legler G., Tschesche R., “Isolierung von 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamin und weiteren Tryptaminderivaten aus Samen von Piptadenia peregrina,” Naturwissenschaften, 1963, 50:94-95.
Li Z., McNally A.J. et al., “Stability of LSD under various storage conditions”, J Anal Toxicol, 1998 (–30 % at 37 °C).
Liquisearch / LSD literature (destruction by chlorine; EDTA in solution).
Lorenzi H., Matos F.J.A., Plantas Medicinais no Brasil: Nativas e Exóticas, Instituto Plantarum, 2008.
Lu Yu, Cha Jing (Classic of Tea), China, c. 760 (Carpenter critical edition 1974).
Luan L.X. et al., DMTx trials, Imperial College, 2024.
Luna L.E., Vegetalismo: Shamanism among the Mestizo Population of the Peruvian Amazon, Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis, 1986.
Ly C., Olson D.E. et al., “Psychedelics Promote Structural and Functional Neural Plasticity,” Cell Reports, 2018, 23(11):3170-3182; Olson D.E., “Psychoplastogens: A Promising Class of Plasticity-Promoting Neurotherapeutics,” Journal of Experimental Neuroscience, 2018.
Madsen M.K., Fisher P.M., Burmester D. et al., “Psychedelic effects of psilocybin correlate with serotonin 2A receptor occupancy and plasma psilocin levels,” Neuropsychopharmacology, 2019, 44:1328-1334.
Mahmoudian M., Jalilpour H., Salehian P., “Toxicity of Peganum harmala: Review and a Case Report,” Iranian Journal of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 2002, 1:1-4.
Manske R.H.F., “A synthesis of the methyltryptamines and some derivatives,” Canadian Journal of Research, 1931, 5:592-600.
MAPS / Lykos Therapeutics / Resilient Pharmaceuticals, official communications on the restructuring (2024), the rebrand (2025), and the resubmission of the MDMA-AT dossier (end of 2025).
Marinho E.A. et al., ethnopharmacological studies on Tabernaemontana sananho, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 2018.
Maslin B.R., Miller J.T., Seigler D.S., “Overview of the generic status of Acacia,” Australian Systematic Botany, 2003.
Mastroiacovo D. et al., “Cocoa flavanol consumption improves cognitive function, blood pressure control, and metabolic profile in elderly subjects,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2015, 101(3):538-548.
Mayer B., “How much nicotine kills a human? Tracing back the generally accepted lethal dose to dubious self-experiments in the nineteenth century,” Archives of Toxicology, 2014, 88(1):5-7.
Michelot D., Melendez-Howell L.M., “Amanita muscaria: chemistry, biology, toxicology, and ethnomycology,” Mycological Research, 2003, 107(2):131-146.
Miller M.J., Albarracin-Jordan J., Moore C., Capriles J.M., “Chemical evidence for the use of multiple psychotropic plants in a 1,000-year-old ritual bundle from South America”, PNAS, 2019, 116(23):11207-11212.
MindMed / Definium Therapeutics, official communications MM-120 ODT then DT120 ODT, Voyage (NCT06741228), Panorama, Emerge, and Ascend trials, 2024-2026; announcement of the topline results of the Emerge phase 3 trial (major depression), June 22, 2026; announcement of the MindMed → Definium Therapeutics rebrand, January 12, 2026.
Mitchell J.M. et al., “MDMA-assisted therapy for moderate to severe PTSD: a randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial,” Nature Medicine, 2023, 29:2473-2480.
Mitchell J.M. et al., “MDMA-assisted therapy for severe PTSD: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 study,” Nature Medicine, 2021, 27:1025-1033.
Mithoefer M.C. et al., “The safety and efficacy of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for PTSD,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2018, 32(7):838-845.
Miviludes, annual reports, files on neo-shamanism and cultic abuses, French Republic.
Mongabay Brasil and Agência Pública, 2026, citing Eufran Ferreira do Amaral (Embrapa Acre) (unstructured harvest, rising pressure, Brazil).
Morales-García J.A. et al., “The alkaloids of Banisteriopsis caapi, the plant source of the Amazonian hallucinogen Ayahuasca, stimulate adult neurogenesis in vitro,” Scientific Reports, 2017, 7:5309.
Most A. (pseud.), Bufo Alvarius: The Psychedelic Toad of the Sonoran Desert, Venom Press, 1984.
Mr-Ginseng.com, articles on Brazilian medicinal plants, accessed 2026.
Mueller F., Lenz C., Dolder P.C., Lang U.E., Schmidt A., Liechti M.E., Borgwardt S., “Neuroimaging in moderate MDMA use: A systematic review,” Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2016, 62:21-34.
N. E. Zinberg, Drug, Set, and Setting, Yale University Press, 1984 (substance / state / container triad).
Newhouse P. et al., “Nicotine treatment of mild cognitive impairment: a 6-month double-blind pilot clinical trial,” Neurology, 2012, 78(2):91-101.
Nichols D.E., “Differences between the mechanism of action of MDMA, MBDB, and the classic hallucinogens,” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 1986, 18(4):305-313.
On the psycholytic / psychedelic distinction and the origin of the terms: Sandison R. (term “psycholytic,” First European Symposium on the therapeutic use of LSD-25, 1960); Leuner H. (German psycholytic school). Synthesis: “Lower-dose psycholytic therapy — a neglected approach,” Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2022, 13:1020505.
Oroc J., Tryptamine Palace: 5-MeO-DMT and the Sonoran Desert Toad, Park Street Press, 2009.
Ortega A. et al., “Salvinorin, a new trans-neoclerodane diterpene from Salvia divinorum (Labiatae),” Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions 1, 1982:2505-2508.
Osmond H., “A review of the clinical effects of psychotomimetic agents,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1957 (neologism “psychedelic”); Hoffer A. & Osmond H., North American high-dose model.
Ostolaza C., Cactus del Perú, Lima, 2014.
Ott J., Ayahuasca Analogues: Pangæan Entheogens, Natural Products Co., 1994.
Ott J., Ayahuasca Analogues: Pangæan Entheogens, op. cit.
Ott J., Pharmacotheon, Natural Products Co., 1996.
Ott J., Pharmacotheon, op. cit. (bufotenin chapter).
Pachter I.J., Zacharias D.E., Ribeiro O., “Indole Alkaloids of Acer saccharinum, Dictyoloma incanescens, Piptadenia colubrina, and Mimosa hostilis,” Journal of Organic Chemistry, 1959, 24(9):1285-1287.
Palhano-Fontes F. et al., “Rapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: a randomized placebo-controlled trial,” Psychological Medicine, 2019, 49(4):655-663.
Palmer J., Articulations: On the Utilisation and Meanings of Psychedelics, 2014 (sources on changa).
Paulke A. et al., “Analysis of lysergic acid amide in human serum and urine after ingestion of Argyreia nervosa seeds,” Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 2012.
Pendergrast M., Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World, Basic Books, 1999.
Perrotin-Brunel H. et al., J Mol Struct 987:67, 2011; Wang M. et al., Cannabis Cannabinoid Res, 2016 (decarboxylation kinetics).
Plowman T., publications on Erythroxylum coca, 1980s–90s.
Polito V. & Liknaitzky P., “Is microdosing a placebo? A rapid review of low-dose LSD and psilocybin research,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2024, 38(8):701-716 (synthesis of dose-dependent effects — Hutten et al., 2020; Murray et al., 2022 — and the measured contribution of expectation — Kaertner et al., 2021).
Powis T.G., Cyphers A., Gaikwad N.W., Grivetti L., Cheong K., “Cacao use and the San Lorenzo Olmec,” PNAS, 2011, 108(21):8595-8600.
Psychedelic Drug Development Bullseye Charts, Psychedelic Alpha, supported by Syneos Health, Q3 2026.
R. R. Shah, R. L. Smith, "Phenoconversion: a neglected factor in the genotype–phenotype relationship," British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 2015.
R. S. Obach, J. Pablo, D. C. Mash, "Cytochrome P450 2D6 catalyzes the O-demethylation of ibogaine to noribogaine," Drug Metabolism and Disposition, 1998.
Rätsch C., Enzyklopädie der psychoaktiven Pflanzen (entries Turbina, Ipomoea, Argyreia).
Ravalec V., Mallendi, Paicheler A., Bois sacré : initiation à l'iboga, Au diable vauvert, 2004.
Reckweg J.T. et al., “A Phase 1, Dose-Ranging Study to Assess Safety and Psychoactive Effects of a Vaporized 5-Methoxy-N,N-Dimethyltryptamine Formulation (GH001) in Healthy Volunteers,” Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2022, 13:760671.
Regional Wixárika Council, declarations on Wirikuta, 2010-2024.
Reichel-Dolmatoff G., The Shaman and the Jaguar: A Study of Narcotic Drugs Among the Indians of Colombia, Temple University Press, 1975.
Repke D.B., Smith D.B., “Occurrence of N-methyl- and N,N-dimethyltryptamines in Acacia simplicifolia,” Lloydia, 1980.
Republic of Gabon, decree no. 0239/PR/MJSRCAVA of May 22, 2026 regulating the access, use, exploitation, research, transformation, and commercialization of iboga, its derivatives, and the associated traditional knowledge [text in the Official Journal to be confirmed].
Reunion Neuroscience, official communications on luvésilocine (RE104): FDA Breakthrough Therapy designation in postpartum depression (February 23, 2026); presentation of full RECONNECT phase 2 trial data (ASCP/APA, May 2026); Bryson N. et al., “RE104: synthesis and activity of a novel serotonergic psychedelic prodrug of 4-Hydroxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine,” ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 2024, 15(12):2386-2395.
Riba J. et al., oral bioavailability of DMT conditioned by intestinal MAO inhibition (see the Ayahuasca chapter).
Riba J., Valle M., Urbano G. et al., “Human pharmacology of ayahuasca: subjective and cardiovascular effects, monoamine metabolite excretion, and pharmacokinetics,” Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 2003, 306(1):73-83; Riba J., McIlhenny E.H., Valle M. et al., “Metabolism and disposition of N,N-dimethyltryptamine and harmala alkaloids after oral administration of ayahuasca,” Drug Testing and Analysis, 2012, 4(7-8):610-616.
Riegel A., Paille F., “La promesse des psychédéliques : LSD et psilocybine dans les troubles de l'usage d'alcool,” Alcoologie et Addictologie, 2024, T44 N3 (French-language synthesis review).
Robison R., Barrow R., Conant C. et al., “Single Treatment With MM120 (Lysergide) in Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial,” JAMA, 2025, 334(15):1358-1372.
Roth B.L. et al., “Salvinorin A: a potent naturally occurring nonnitrogenous κ opioid selective agonist,” PNAS, 2002, 99(18):11934-11939.
Runge F.F., communication on the isolation of caffeine, 1819 (Berlin Akademie report).
Saar M., “Fungi in Khanty folk medicine,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 1991, 31(2):175-179.
Sahagún B. de, Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España (Florentine Codex), 16th century.
Schaefer S.B., Furst P.T. (eds.), People of the Peyote, University of New Mexico Press, 1996.
Schenberg E.E. et al., “Treating drug dependence with the aid of ibogaine,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2014.
Schmidt B. et al., “Caffeine therapy for apnea of prematurity,” New England Journal of Medicine, 2007, 354:2112-2121.
Scholey A.B. et al., “Consumption of cocoa flavanols results in acute improvements in mood and cognitive performance during sustained mental effort,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2010, 24(10):1505-1514.
Schultes R.E., Hofmann A., Plants of the Gods, op. cit. (chapters on Solanaceae, Anadenanthera, Cannabis).
Schultes R.E., Hofmann A., Plants of the Gods, op. cit. (Jurema section).
Schultes R.E., Hofmann A., Plants of the Gods, op. cit. (San Pedro chapter).
Schultes R.E., Hofmann A., Plants of the Gods, op. cit., chapter on the snuffs.
Schultes R.E., Hofmann A., Plants of the Gods: Their Sacred, Healing and Hallucinogenic Powers, Healing Arts Press, 2001 (revised ed.).
Schultes R.E., Hofmann A., Rätsch C., Plants of the Gods, Healing Arts Press, 2001 (chap. “Ololiuqui — Vines of the Serpent”).
Schultes R.E., Raffauf R.F., The Healing Forest: Medicinal and Toxic Plants of the Northwest Amazonia, Dioscorides Press, 1990.
Schultes R.E., “A Contribution to our Knowledge of Rivea corymbosa, the Narcotic Ololiuqui of the Aztecs,” Botanical Museum, Harvard University, 1941.
Sewell R.A., Halpern J.H., Pope H.G. Jr., “Response of cluster headache to psilocybin and LSD,” Neurology, 2006, 66(12):1920-1922.
Sewell R.A., Halpern J.H., Pope H.G., “Response of cluster headache to psilocybin and LSD,” Neurology, 2006, 66(12):1920-1922 (low-to-moderate, not sub-perceptual doses).
Sharon D., Wizard of the Four Winds: A Shaman's Story, Free Press, 1978.
Sheffler D.J., Roth B.L., “Salvinorin A: the 'magic mint' hallucinogen finds a molecular target in the kappa opioid receptor,” Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 2003, 24(3):107-109.
Shulgin A., Shulgin A., PiHKAL: A Chemical Love Story, Transform Press, 1991.
Shulgin A., Shulgin A., TiHKAL: The Continuation, Transform Press, 1997 (5-MeO-DMT entry).
Shulgin A., TIHKAL #54 (THH: base melting 187–190 °C, HCl 232–234 °C).
Siebert D.J., “Salvia divinorum and salvinorin A: new pharmacologic findings,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 1994, 43(1):53-56.
Simão A.Y. et al., “Stability of DMT and β-carbolines in ayahuasca”, Molecules 25(9):2072, 2020.
Small Pharma / Cybin, SPL026 regulatory communications, 2022-2024.
Späth E., “Über die Anhalonium-Alkaloide,” Monatshefte für Chemie, 1919, 40:129-154.
Speeter M.E., Anthony W.C., “The Action of Oxalyl Chloride on Indoles: A New Approach to Tryptamines,” Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1954, 76(23):6208-6210.
Spriggs M.J., Giribaldi B., Lyons T. et al., “Body mass index (BMI) does not predict responses to psilocybin,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2023, 37(1):107-116.
Standage T., A History of the World in 6 Glasses, Walker & Company, 2005 (coffee and tea chapter).
Stoll W.A., “Lysergsäure-diäthylamid, ein Phantastikum aus der Mutterkorngruppe,” Schweizer Archiv für Neurologie und Psychiatrie, 1947, 60:279-323.
Strassman R., DMT: The Spirit Molecule, Park Street Press, 2001.
Stromberg V.L., “The isolation of bufotenine from Piptadenia peregrina,” Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1954, 76(6):1707.
Szára S., “Dimethyltryptamin: its metabolism in man,” Experientia, 1956, 12:441-442.
Szigeti B. et al., “Self-blinding citizen science to explore psychedelic microdosing,” eLife, 2021, 10:e62878.
Szigeti B., Kartner L., Blemings A. et al., “Self-blinding citizen science to explore psychedelic microdosing,” eLife, 2021, 10:e62878.
T. Zhao, Y.-Q. He, J. Wang et al., "Inhibition of human cytochrome P450 enzymes 3A4 and 2D6 by β-carboline alkaloids, harmine derivatives," Phytotherapy Research, 2011, 25(11):1671-1677 (competitive inhibition of CYP2D6 by harmaline and harmine).
Tafur J., The Fellowship of the River: A Medical Doctor's Exploration into Traditional Amazonian Plant Medicine, Espiritu Books, 2017.
Tagen M. et al., “The risk of chronic psychedelic and MDMA microdosing for valvular heart disease,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2023 (doi:10.1177/02698811231190865); Rouaud A., Calder A.E., Hasler G., “Microdosing psychedelics and the risk of cardiac fibrosis and valvulopathy: comparison to known cardiotoxins,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 2024 (doi:10.1177/02698811231225609) — chronic 5-HT2B agonism; fenfluramine / pergolide / methysergide analogy.
The White House, “Fact Sheet: President Donald J. Trump is Accelerating Medical Treatments for Serious Mental Illness,” April 18, 2026.
Tocris #0289; Wikipedia Ibotenic acid (ibotenic in pH 7.4 buffer stable ~1 year).
Torres C.M., Repke D.B., Anadenanthera: Visionary Plant of Ancient South America, Haworth Press, 2006.
Tripsitter, “Blue Honey: What Is It & Does It Actually Work?,” consulted online (critical treatment of the preservation and potency claims).
Trout K., San Pedro & Related Trichocereus Species, Mydriatic Productions, 2014.
Trout K., Trout's Notes on Sacred Cacti, Mydriatic Productions, 2007.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), unodc.org, “Cambodia tackles safrole oil production” (extraction, Cardamom Mountains and Botum Sakor park, 2007 seizure at Laem Chabang).
United States, Executive Order 14401, “Accelerating Medical Treatments for Serious Mental Illness,” April 18, 2026; Federal Register, vol. 91, no. 77, FR Doc. 2026-07907, April 22, 2026; presidential compilation govinfo DCPD-202600269.
Uthaug M.V. et al., “A single inhalation of vapor from dried toad secretion containing 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) in a naturalistic setting is related to sustained enhancement of satisfaction with life, mindfulness-related capacities, and a decrement of psychopathological symptoms,” Psychopharmacology, 2019, 236(9):2653-2666.
Valdés L.J. et al., “Divinorin A, a psychotropic terpenoid from Salvia divinorum,” Journal of Organic Chemistry, 1984, 49:4716-4720.
van Beek T.A. et al., “Tabernaemontana L. (Apocynaceae): A review of its taxonomy, phytochemistry, ethnobotany and pharmacology,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 1984, 10(1):1-156.
Van Gennep A., Les rites de passage, Paris, 1909.
Vepsäläinen J.J. et al., “Isolation and characterization of yuremamine, a new phytoindole,” Planta Medica, 2005, 71(11):1053-1057.
Wacker D., Wang S., McCorvy J.D. et al., “Crystal Structure of an LSD-Bound Human Serotonin Receptor,” Cell, 2017, 168(3):377-389.
Wang P. et al., “A high-throughput chemical screen reveals that harmine-mediated inhibition of DYRK1A increases human pancreatic beta cell replication,” Nature Medicine, 2015, 21:383-388.
Wasson R.G., “A new Mexican psychotropic drug from the mint family,” Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 1962, 20:77-84.
Wasson R.G., “Notes on the Present Status of Ololiuhqui and the Other Hallucinogens of Mexico,” Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 1963, 20:161-193.
Wasson R.G., “Seeking the Magic Mushroom,” Life Magazine, May 13, 1957.
White E.P., “Evaluation of further legumes, mainly Lupinus and Acacia species, for cyanogenetic glucosides,” New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology, 1957.
WHO, WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic 2023, World Health Organization, 2023.
Wieland H., Konz W., Mittasch H., “Die Konstitution von Bufotenin und Bufotenidin,” Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie, 1934, 513:1-25.
Wikipedia / SWGDRUG, Bufotenine (melting point 146–147 °C); Annales de Toxicologie Analytique, 2006 (dried venom).
Wilbert J., Tobacco and Shamanism in South America, Yale University Press, 1987.
X. Koenig, K. Hilber, "The anti-addiction drug ibogaine and the heart: a delicate relation," Molecules, 2015 (QT prolongation, hERG).
Y. Guignon (Blessings of the Forest-Gabon), op-ed “Iboga : le Gabon affirme sa souveraineté sur un patrimoine stratégique mondial,” GabonReview, May 2026; D. Nassim, ibogaine “blood diamond,” Lucid News, 2022; INTERPOL, report on the illicit trafficking of iboga, 2023.
Zamengo L. et al., 2019 (4 years); Sci Rep 2025 (resin: THC 35 %%→3 %% in 2 years).
Zarrillo S. et al., “The use and domestication of Theobroma cacao during the mid-Holocene in the upper Amazon,” Nature Ecology & Evolution, 2018, 2:1879-1888.
“Biodiversity of β-carboline profile of B. caapi and ayahuasca”, Plants (MDPI), 2020 (robustness in decoction).
“Bridging the knowledge gap in harmaline’s properties”, Pharmaceutics (MDPI), 2026 (DSC 249–254 °C).
“Calorimetric/Thermogravimetric study of harmine”, Thermo (MDPI), 2025 (melting ~280 °C, degradation 280–330 °C).
“Conversion of CBD to THC” (Wikipedia, primary sources); Fathordoobady, 2023 (CBDA decarb ~140 °C).
“Lysergic Acid Amide (LSA), an LSD Analog: Systematic Review of Pharmacological Effects, Adverse Outcomes, and Therapeutic Potentials,” Pharmacy (Basel), 2025, 13(4):98.
“New insights into the chemical composition of ayahuasca”, ACS Omega / PMC9016809, 2022 (physical losses of harmine).
“Photosensitizing properties of harmaline and harmalol”, Photochem Photobiol Sci, 2022; UV/riboflavin photo-oxidation, 2021.
“Stability-guided formulation of a light-sensitive LSD capsule”, Pharmaceutics (MDPI), 2025 (photodegradation in 30 s).
Repeated across chapters
Hirschfeld T., Prugger J., Majić T., Schmidt T.T., “Dose-response relationships of LSD-induced subjective experiences in humans,” Neuropsychopharmacology, 2023, 48(11):1602-1611. — Dose and effect: a non-linear relationship, The second ceiling: what really limits a dose
Griffiths R.R., Johnson M.W., Richards W.A. et al., “Psilocybin occasioned mystical-type experiences: immediate and persisting dose-related effects,” Psychopharmacology, 2011, 218(4):649-665. — Dose and effect: a non-linear relationship, Microdosing: promise, proof, and prudence
Torres C.M., Repke D.B., Anadenanthera: Visionary Plant of Ancient South America, Haworth Press, 2006. — 5-MeO-DMT, Bufotenin, Cacao, Rapé · Hapé
Stromberg V.L., “The isolation of bufotenine from Piptadenia peregrina,” Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1954, 76(6):1707. — 5-MeO-DMT, Jaguar
Legler G., Tschesche R., “Isolierung von 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamin und weiteren Tryptaminderivaten aus Samen von Piptadenia peregrina,” Naturwissenschaften, 1963, 50:94-95. — 5-MeO-DMT, Jaguar
Erspamer V., Vitali T., Roseghini M., Cei J.M., “5-Methoxy- and 5-hydroxyindoles in the skin of Bufo alvarius,” Biochemical Pharmacology, 1967, 16(7):1149-1164. — 5-MeO-DMT, Bufotenin
Shulgin A., Shulgin A., TiHKAL: The Continuation, Transform Press, 1997 (5-MeO-DMT entry). — 5-MeO-DMT, Jaguar
Cherian K.N., Keynan J.N., Anker L., Faerman A. et al., “Magnesium–ibogaine therapy in veterans with traumatic brain injuries,” Nature Medicine, 2024, 30(2):373-381. — Iboga, Ibogaine
Shulgin A., Shulgin A., PiHKAL: A Chemical Love Story, Transform Press, 1991. — MDMA, Mescaline